Before proteins can perform their evolved functions, they must be synthesized within the cell. The process of synthesizing a protein is critically important to the cell and, thus, is an energy-intensive process.
The basic building blocks of a protein are amino acids, which come in twenty (and more) flavors. These amino acids have different properties that afford proteins different structures and functions when the amino acids are polymerized together in distinct orders. These amino acids can have distinct signaling roles when they exist as monomers as well (see this paper by Nobukuni et al for an example).
Monomeric amino acids in the cellular environment do not randomly polymerize to form proteins. In the first of several steps, tRNAs are charged: they are covalently linked to amino acids via aminoacyl tRNA synthetases. These synthetases hold the very important role of attaching the appropriate amino acid to the appropriate tRNA. Because inappropriate charging of tRNAs would lead to misincorporation of amino acids into a protein chain (wasting energy or leading to even bigger problems for the cell), sythetases are very specific. In fact, some synthetases have an editing site, where they will catalyze the removal of incorrectly placed amino acids.
After tRNAs are charged with their appropriate amino acids, they are ready for interaction with the ribosome. Ribosomes are large, complex molecules that merit their own post. Briefly, ribosomes are composed of RNA and protein and are made of two distinct complexes: the large and small subunits (depending on the origin of the ribosome, the subunits have different sedimentation coefficients, so you might see 30S and 50S for bacteria or 60S and 40S for eukaryotes, for example). Ribosomes catalyze the polymerization of amino acids into proteins.
In the first step of ribosome-mediated protein production, the small subunit of the ribosome combined with a tRNA for methionine (the amino acid that begins the protein chain) scans along the transcribed mRNA until it encounters a start site (ATG codon). Here, the complex stops, and the charged tRNA with its amino acid comes into contact with the peptidyl transferase site (P) on the ribosome. eIF2 (eukaryotic initiation factor 2), which was along for the ride, hydrolyzes GTP to GDP at this point such that the ribosome stops at the appropriate codon.
Next, the large subunit of the ribosome binds the small subunit, making a full ribosome that is ready for catalysis.
The tRNA that lines up with the mRNA's next codon then binds in the acceptor site (A), along with the help of eEF-1 (eukaryotic elongation factor-1), which hydrolyzes GTP to GDP. At this point, the ribosome goes into action: using the peptidyl transferase center (PTC), it catalyzes the covalent linkage of the first and second amino acids.
The entire ribosome now moves along the mRNA in a process called translocation, which requires the help of EF-2 (and GTP hydrolysis). The first tRNA is moved into the exit site (E), and the second tRNA moves into the P site, while the A site is open for another aminoacyl-tRNA.
The process repeats until the ribosome encounters a stop codon. At this point, termination factors (TFs), which have structures similar to tRNAs and bind mRNAs but do not have amino acids, enter the acceptor site of the ribosome. The ribosome then catalyzes the addition of water to the end of the amino acid chain, releasing it from the peptidyl transferase center and allowing it to leave the ribosome and begin folding into its native conformation.
While there are several details that I may have seemingly glazed over, this post should give a broad, simplified overview of translation. Future posts will address the many details involved.
In the first step of ribosome-mediated protein production, the small subunit of the ribosome combined with a tRNA for methionine (the amino acid that begins the protein chain) scans along the transcribed mRNA until it encounters a start site (ATG codon). Here, the complex stops, and the charged tRNA with its amino acid comes into contact with the peptidyl transferase site (P) on the ribosome. eIF2 (eukaryotic initiation factor 2), which was along for the ride, hydrolyzes GTP to GDP at this point such that the ribosome stops at the appropriate codon.
Next, the large subunit of the ribosome binds the small subunit, making a full ribosome that is ready for catalysis.
The tRNA that lines up with the mRNA's next codon then binds in the acceptor site (A), along with the help of eEF-1 (eukaryotic elongation factor-1), which hydrolyzes GTP to GDP. At this point, the ribosome goes into action: using the peptidyl transferase center (PTC), it catalyzes the covalent linkage of the first and second amino acids.
The entire ribosome now moves along the mRNA in a process called translocation, which requires the help of EF-2 (and GTP hydrolysis). The first tRNA is moved into the exit site (E), and the second tRNA moves into the P site, while the A site is open for another aminoacyl-tRNA.
The process repeats until the ribosome encounters a stop codon. At this point, termination factors (TFs), which have structures similar to tRNAs and bind mRNAs but do not have amino acids, enter the acceptor site of the ribosome. The ribosome then catalyzes the addition of water to the end of the amino acid chain, releasing it from the peptidyl transferase center and allowing it to leave the ribosome and begin folding into its native conformation.
While there are several details that I may have seemingly glazed over, this post should give a broad, simplified overview of translation. Future posts will address the many details involved.
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